Wednesday, July 6, 2011
You Be the Judge
Empower my Decisions: The Effects of Power Gestures on Confirmatory Information Processing
Julia Fischer et al.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Recent research has shown that social power systematically influences information processing in many ways, and can be induced simply via powerful gestures or postures. The current studies investigated the impact of embodied power on confirmatory information processing after decision making. Based upon previous social power research, we hypothesized that individuals who posed in powerful ways (making a clenched fist or sitting in an open, expansive posture) would systematically prefer decision-consistent over decision-inconsistent information; an effect known as selective exposure, or biased assimilation. Four studies consistently indicated that bodily positioning associated with high levels of power induced greater confirmatory tendencies in the evaluation and search stages of a subsequent, decision-relevant information task (Studies 1-4). This tendency is unlikely to be due to mere physical strain (Study 4), and was mediated by differences in experienced decision certainty (Studies 3 and 4); indicating that the embodiment of high power makes people more confident regarding the validity of their decisions. Consequently, high-power posers systematically prefer information that is consistent with their decision preference.
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Bram Van den Bergh, Julien Schmitt & Luk Warlop
Journal of Marketing Research, forthcoming
Abstract:
One field study and five experiments show that seemingly irrelevant bodily actions influence consumer behavior. These studies demonstrate that arm flexion (where the motor action is directed toward the self) versus arm extension (where the motor action is directed away from the self) influence purchase behavior, product preferences and economic decisions. More specifically, arm flexion increases the likelihood of purchasing vice products (study 1a), leads to a preference for vices over virtues (study 1b & 2a) and for smaller, sooner over larger, later monetary rewards (studies 2b-4). The authors argue that arm flexion induces present-biased preferences through activation of approach motivation. The effect of bodily actions on present-biased preferences is regulated by the behavioral approach system (studies 3 & 4) and relies on the learned association between arm flexion and activation of this approach system (study 4). Implications for intertemporal decision making, embodied cognition and marketing practice are discussed.
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Are there "His" and "Her" Types of Decisions? Exploring Gender Differences in the Confirmation Bias
Eva Traut-Mattausch et al.
Sex Roles, August 2011, Pages 223-233
Abstract:
Research on biased information seeking demonstrates that after decisions, people show a preference for supporting rather than conflicting information (confirmation bias). In a laboratory study (N = 86 German undergraduates), we examined the interactive effects of different decision types and gender on the confirmation bias. Our study revealed that women showed less confirmation bias when the decision concerned themselves and their mate (interdependent decision) compared to a decision concerning only themselves (independent decision). In contrast, men showed less confirmation bias when they made an independent compared to an interdependent decision. Results were discussed in terms of self-construal differences between men and women leading to different motivations (defense vs. accuracy) during the information seeking depending on the decision type.
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The Behavioral Genetics of Behavioral Anomalies
David Cesarini et al.
Management Science, forthcoming
Abstract:
A number of recent papers have examined the environmental and genetic sources of individual differences in economic and financial decision making. Here we contribute to this burgeoning literature by extending it to a number of key behavioral anomalies that are thought to be of importance for consumption, savings, and portfolio selection decisions. Using survey-based evidence from more than 11,000 Swedish twins, we demonstrate that a number of anomalies such as, for instance, the conjunction fallacy, default bias, and loss aversion are moderately heritable. In contrast, our estimates imply that variation in common environment explains only a small share of individual differences. We also report suggestive evidence in favor of a shared genetic architecture between cognitive reflection and a subset of the studied anomalies. These results offer some support for the proposition that the heritable variation in behavioral anomalies is partly mediated by genetic variance in cognitive ability. Taken together with previous findings, our results underline the importance of genetic differences as a source of heterogeneity in economic and financial decision making.
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Chak Fu Lam et al.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, forthcoming
Abstract:
Previous research on feedback frequency suggests that more frequent feedback improves learning and task performance (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984). Drawing from resource allocation theory (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989), we challenge the "more is better" assumption and propose that frequent feedback can overwhelm an individual's cognitive resource capacity, thus reducing task effort and producing an inverted-U relationship with learning and performance over time. We then propose that positive and negative affective states will moderate the inverted-U relationship between feedback frequency and task performance. We test these propositions in an experimental study where the frequency of task feedback is manipulated. Results show that feedback frequency exhibits an inverted-U relationship with task performance, and this relationship is mediated by task effort. This curvilinear relationship is then moderated by individual's positive affective state.
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Don't you know that you want to trust me? Subliminal goal priming and persuasion
Jean-Baptiste Légal et al.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
We investigated the effect of goal priming on the processing of a persuasive message. Before reading a persuasive message about tap water consumption, participants were subliminally primed (or not) with the goal "to trust". Subsequently, they completed a questionnaire about their perception of the message, the source of the message, and tap water consumption intentions. The results indicated that non-conscious activation of the goal "to trust" leads to a better evaluation of the message, increases behavioral intentions in accordance with the message, and positively influences the assessment of the source.
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"Lucky" Numbers, Unlucky Consumers
Zili Yang
Journal of Socio-Economics, forthcoming
Abstract:
Superstitious beliefs affect economic activity and may have noticeable economic impacts. In China, numbers often convey certain superstitious meanings. Retailers in China manipulate digital patterns on price tags to fit consumers' superstitious preferences. In this paper, I analyze such superstitious manipulations using a large sample of price tags from Beijing, China. I also estimate the aggregate economic impacts of superstitious manipulations of retail price tags. The analytical results and the estimations presented in this paper suggest that Chinese consumers pay extra for their superstitious beliefs when they purchase goods. Retailers are the clear winners in superstitious manipulations of digital patterns in price tags.
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Motivated Closed-Mindedness Mediates the Effect of Threat on Political Conservatism
Hulda Thórisdóttir & John Jost
Political Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
In this article we synthesize theory and research from several areas of psychology and political science to propose and test a causal model of the effects of threat on political attitudes. Based in part on prior research showing that fear, threat, and anxiety decrease cognitive capacity and motivation, we hypothesize that under high (vs. low) threat, people will seek to curtail open-ended information searches and exhibit motivated closed-mindedness (one aspect of the need for cognitive closure). The subjective desire for certainty, control, and closure, in turn, is expected to increase the individual's affinity for political conservatism, insofar as resistance to change and adherence to authority figures and conventional forms of morality are assumed to satisfy these epistemic motives more successfully than their ideological opposites. Consistent with this account, we find in Studies 1a and 1b that putting people into a highly threatened mindset leads them to exhibit an increase in motivated closed-mindedness and to perceive the world as more dangerous. Furthermore, in Study 2 we demonstrate that a subtle threat manipulation increases self-reported conservatism (or decreases self-reported liberalism), and this effect is mediated by closed-mindedness. In Study 3, we manipulated closed-mindedness directly and found that high (vs. low) cognitive load results in a greater affinity for the Republican (vs. Democratic) party. Finally, in Study 4 we conducted an experiment involving political elites in Iceland and found that three different types of threat (to the self, group, and system) all led center-right politicians to score higher on closed-mindedness and issue-based political conservatism. Implications for society and for the theory of ideology as motivated social cognition are discussed.
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Following the Crowd: Brain Substrates of Long-Term Memory Conformity
Micah Edelson et al.
Science, 1 July 2011, Pages 108-111
Abstract:
Human memory is strikingly susceptible to social influences, yet we know little about the underlying mechanisms. We examined how socially induced memory errors are generated in the brain by studying the memory of individuals exposed to recollections of others. Participants exhibited a strong tendency to conform to erroneous recollections of the group, producing both long-lasting and temporary errors, even when their initial memory was strong and accurate. Functional brain imaging revealed that social influence modified the neuronal representation of memory. Specifically, a particular brain signature of enhanced amygdala activity and enhanced amygdala-hippocampus connectivity predicted long-lasting but not temporary memory alterations. Our findings reveal how social manipulation can alter memory and extend the known functions of the amygdala to encompass socially mediated memory distortions.
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The gambler's fallacy and gender
Sigrid Suetens & Jean-Robert Tyran
Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, forthcoming
Abstract:
The "gambler's fallacy" is the false belief that a random event is less likely to occur if the event has occurred recently. Such beliefs are false if the onset of events is in fact independent of previous events. We study gender differences in the gambler's fallacy using data from the Danish state lottery. Our data set is unique in that we track individual players over time which allows us to investigate how men and women react with their number picking to outcomes of recent lotto drawings. We find evidence of gambler's fallacy for men but not for women. On average, men are about 1% less likely to bet on numbers drawn in the previous week than on numbers not drawn. Women do not react significantly to the previous week's drawing outcome.
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Framing Effects and Expected Social Security Claiming Behavior
Jeffrey Brown, Arie Kapteyn & Olivia Mitchell
NBER Working Paper, May 2011
Abstract:
Eligible participants in the U.S. Social Security system may claim benefits anytime from age 62-70, with benefit levels actuarially adjusted based on the claiming age. This paper shows that individual intentions with regard to Social Security claiming ages are sensitive to how the early versus late claiming decision is framed. Using an experimental design, we find that the use of a "break-even analysis" has the very strong effect of encouraging individuals to claim early. We also show that individuals are more likely to report they will delay claiming when later claiming is framed as a gain, and when the information provides an anchoring point at older, rather than younger, ages. Moreover, females, individuals with credit card debt, and workers with lower expected benefits are more strongly influenced by framing. We conclude that some individuals may not make fully rational optimizing choices when it comes to choosing a claiming date.
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William Hart & Dolores Albarracin
Social Psychological and Personality Science, forthcoming
Abstract:
In light of U.S. society's ever increasing need for activity, the authors used three experiments to examine how general action concepts, activated by subtle priming methods, influence choices to approach information that confirms a recent decision. Findings from Experiments 1 to 3 revealed that viewing action (vs. control) words prior to information selection increased selective approach to supporting information, but viewing inaction (vs. control) words reduced this bias. Experiment 3 also showed that the effect of the action words on this confirmation bias was smaller when participants were allowed to self-affirm by writing about an important personal value. In addition, the experiments found that viewing the action words caused the selection of more total information than viewing the inaction words. The authors conclude that the growing need for activity in the United States may contribute to a loss of objectivity in the way citizens gather information.
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Henry Otgaar, Hugo Alberts & Lesly Cuppens
Applied Cognitive Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Studies show that engaging in self-control results in deteriorated performance on subsequent tasks. In legal settings, witnesses and/or suspects are probably involved in self-control (e.g. controlling their emotions). The current study tested whether such involvement in self-control would lead to increased suggestibility levels. We found direct evidence for this. Forty-four participants were randomly divided into a high level of depletion condition (regulation of attention) or a low level of depletion condition (no regulation of attention). Also, they were presented with a suggestibility measure (Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale). We showed that depleted participants were significantly more suggestible than non-depleted participants. Our findings are relevant in situations in which suggestive practices may take place.
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Andrew Ward et al.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
Two studies investigated the capacity of a self-affirmation intervention to lower a psychological barrier to conflict resolution. Study 1 used a role-play scenario in which a student negotiated with a professor for greater rewards for work on a collaborative project. A self-affirmation manipulation, in which participants focused on an important personal value, significantly reduced their tendency to derogate a concession offered by the professor relative to one that had not been offered. Study 2 replicated this effect and showed that the phenomenon did not depend on the self-affirmed participant's experience of a heightened sense of deservingness or a tendency to make positive attributions about the professor. Distraction and explicit mood enhancement were also ruled out as mediators of the self-affirmation effect, which appears to stem from motivational rather than explicit cognitive processes.
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Colin Holbrook, Paulo Sousa & Jennifer Hahn-Holbrook
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Individuals subtly reminded of death, coalitional challenges, or feelings of uncertainty display exaggerated preferences for affirmations and against criticisms of their cultural in-groups. Terror management, coalitional psychology, and uncertainty management theories postulate this "worldview defense" effect as the output of mechanisms evolved either to allay the fear of death, foster social support, or reduce anxiety by increasing adherence to cultural values. In 4 studies, we report evidence for an alternative perspective. We argue that worldview defense owes to unconscious vigilance, a state of accentuated reactivity to affective targets (which need not relate to cultural worldviews) that follows detection of subtle alarm cues (which need not pertain to death, coalitional challenges, or uncertainty). In Studies 1 and 2, death-primed participants produced exaggerated ratings of worldview-neutral affective targets. In Studies 3 and 4, subliminal threat manipulations unrelated to death, coalitional challenges, or uncertainty evoked worldview defense. These results are discussed as they inform evolutionary interpretations of worldview defense and future investigations of the influence of unconscious alarm on judgment.
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Defensive Self-Esteem Impacts Attention, Attitude Strength, and Self-Affirmation Processes
Geoffrey Haddock & Jochen Gebauer
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Individuals with defensive self-esteem score low on implicit measures of self-esteem (ISE) and high on explicit measures of self-esteem (ESE). Although there is some evidence about the consequences of defensive self-esteem, much of it is indirect and open to alternative explanations. Here, we offer direct and novel evidence regarding the implications of defensive self-esteem. Using a standard visual attention paradigm, Study 1 revealed that defensive self-esteem is associated with enhanced attention to defensiveness-related words. Building upon these results, Study 2 found that defensive self-esteem individuals reported particularly strong attitudes, across different operationalizations of attitude strength as well as different attitude objects. Study 3 examined the sensitivity of defensive self-esteem individuals to self-affirmation effects. The results revealed that self-affirmation was particularly effective for defensive self-esteem individuals in reducing actual-ideal self-discrepancies. Overall, the results provide novel and firm evidence that the combination of simultaneously low ISE and high ESE elicits defensiveness.
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Craig Trumbo et al.
Risk Analysis, forthcoming
Abstract:
This study evaluated how individuals living on the Gulf Coast perceived hurricane risk after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. It was hypothesized that hurricane outlook and optimistic bias for hurricane risk would be associated positively with distance from the Katrina-Rita landfall (more optimism at greater distance), controlling for historically based hurricane risk and county population density, demographics, individual hurricane experience, and dispositional optimism. Data were collected in January 2006 through a mail survey sent to 1,375 households in 41 counties on the coast (n = 824, 60% response). The analysis used hierarchal regression to test hypotheses. Hurricane history and population density had no effect on outlook; individuals who were male, older, and with higher household incomes were associated with lower risk perception; individual hurricane experience and personal impacts from Katrina and Rita predicted greater risk perception; greater dispositional optimism predicted more optimistic outlook; distance had a small effect but predicted less optimistic outlook at greater distance (model R2= 0.21). The model for optimistic bias had fewer effects: age and community tenure were significant; dispositional optimism had a positive effect on optimistic bias; distance variables were not significant (model R2= 0.05). The study shows that an existing measure of hurricane outlook has utility, hurricane outlook appears to be a unique concept from hurricane optimistic bias, and proximity has at most small effects. Future extension of this research will include improved conceptualization and measurement of hurricane risk perception and will bring to focus several concepts involving risk communication.
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Torleif Halkjelsvik, Magne Jørgensen & Karl Halvor Teigen
Applied Cognitive Psychology, March/April 2011, Pages 314-323
Abstract:
Past research has shown that people underestimate the time they need to complete large tasks, whereas completion times for smaller tasks are often overestimated, suggesting higher productivity estimates for larger than for smaller tasks. By replacing the traditional question about how much time a given work will take with a question about how much work can be completed within a given amount of time, we also found the opposite pattern. Both trends could reflect a general tendency to underestimate large amounts (of work as well as time) relatively to small ones. This ‘magnitude bias' was explored in two studies where students estimated reading tasks, a third where IT-professionals estimated software projects, and a fourth where participants imagined a familiar walk, divided into time segments or part distances of varying lengths.
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Dolores Albarracín & Ian Handley
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, June 2011, Pages 983-998
Abstract:
Implicit in many informal and formal principles of psychological change is the understudied assumption that change requires either an active approach or an inactive approach. This issue was systematically investigated by comparing the effects of general action goals and general inaction goals on attitude change. As prior attitudes facilitate preparation for an upcoming persuasive message, general action goals were hypothesized to facilitate conscious retrieval of prior attitudes and therefore hinder attitude change to a greater extent than general inaction goals. Experiment 1 demonstrated that action primes (e.g., "go," "energy") yielded faster attitude report than inaction primes(e.g., "rest," "still") among participants who were forewarned of an upcoming persuasive message. Experiment 2 showed that the faster attitude report identified in Experiment 1 was localized on attitudes toward a message topic participants were prepared to receive. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 showed that, compared with inaction primes, action primes produced less attitude change and less argument scrutiny in response to a counterattitudinal message on a previously forewarned topic. Experiment 6 confirmed that the effects of the primes on attitude change were due to differential attitude retrieval. That is, when attitude expression was induced immediately after the primes, action and inaction goals produced similar amounts of attitude change. In contrast, when no attitude expression was induced after the prime, action goals produced less attitude change than inaction goals. Finally, Experiment 7 validated the assumption that these goal effects can be reduced or reversed when the goals have already been satisfied by an intervening task.
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Evidence That Thinking About Death Relates to Time-Estimation Behavior
Andy Martens & Brandon Schmeichel
Death Studies, Summer 2011, Pages 504-524
Abstract:
Time and death are linked - the passing of time brings us closer to death. Terror management theory proposes that awareness of death represents a potent problem that motivates a variety of psychological defenses (Greenberg, Pyszczynski, & Solomon, 1997). We tested the hypothesis that thinking about death motivates elongated perceptions of brief intervals of time. Studies 1 and 2 found that college students who reported thinking more frequently about death overestimated brief durations. Study 3 found evidence of the predicted causal relationship. Students assigned to think about death provided longer time estimates than those assigned to think about a control topic.
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Delighted and distracted: Positive affect increases priming for irrelevant information
Renée Biss & Lynn Hasher
Emotion, forthcoming
Abstract:
Emotional states are known to influence how people process relevant information. Here, we address the impact of emotional state on irrelevant information. In this experiment, participants were randomly assigned to a neutral or positive mood induction, and then completed a task that involved viewing a sequence of overlapping pictures and words. They were instructed to attend to the pictures and ignore the distracting words. Following a filled interval, implicit memory for the distracting words was tested using a word fragment completion task. Individuals in the positive mood group showed increased implicit memory for previously irrelevant information compared to those in the neutral mood group. These findings are consistent with the view that positive mood broadens attention to include encoding of irrelevant information in the environment, and this can impact subsequent performance.
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Action embellishment: An intention bias in the perception of success
Jesse Lee Preston, Ryan Ritter & Daniel Wegner
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Naïve theories of behavior hold that actions are caused by an agent's intentions, and the subsequent success of an action is measured by the satisfaction of those intentions. However, when an action is not as successful as intended, the expected causal link between intention and action may distort perception of the action itself. Four studies found evidence of an intention bias in perceptions of action. Actors perceived actions to be more successful when given a prior choice (e.g., choose between 2 words to type) and also when they felt greater motivation for the action (e.g., hitting pictures of disliked people). When the intent was to fail (e.g., singing poorly), choice led to worse estimates of performance. A final experiment suggested that intention bias works independent from self-enhancement motives. In observing another actor hit pictures of Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama, shots were distorted to match the actor's intentions, even when it opposed personal wishes. Together these studies indicate that judgments of action may be automatically distorted and that these inferences arise from the expected consistency between intention and action in agency.
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Is variety the spice of life? It all depends on the rate of consumption
Jeff Galak, Justin Kruger & George Loewenstein
Judgment and Decision Making, April 2011, Pages 230-238
Abstract:
Is variety of the spice of life? The present research suggests that the answer depends on the rate of consumption. In three experiments, we find that, whereas a variety of stimuli is preferred to repetition of even a better-liked single stimulus when consumption is continuous, this preference reverses when the satiation associated with repetition is reduced by slowing down the rate of consumption. Decision makers, however, seem to under-appreciate the influence of consumption rate on preference for (and satisfaction with) variety. At high rates of consumption, they correctly anticipate their own, high, desire for variety, but at low rates of consumption people tend to overestimate their own desire for variety. These results complicate the picture presented by prior research on the "diversification bias", suggesting that people overestimate their own desire for variety only when consumption is spaced out over time.
