Staying out of the hole
Resource Scarcity, Effort, and Performance in Physically Demanding Jobs: An Evolutionary Explanation
Marko Pitesa & Stefan Thau
Journal of Applied Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Based on evolutionary theory, we predicted that cues of resource scarcity in the environment (e.g., news of droughts or food shortages) lead people to reduce their effort and performance in physically demanding work. We tested this prediction in a 2-wave field survey among employees and replicated it experimentally in the lab. In Study 1, employees who perceived resources in the environment to be scarce reported exerting less effort when their jobs involved much (but not little) physical work. In Study 2, participants who read that resources in the environment were scarce performed worse on a task demanding more (carrying books) but not less (transcribing book titles) physical work. This result was found even though better performance increased participants' chances of additional remuneration, and even though scarcity cues did not affect individuals' actual ability to meet their energy needs. We discuss implications for managing effort and performance, and the potential of evolutionary psychology to explain core organizational phenomena.
Enacting Rituals to Improve Self-Control
Allen Tian et al.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Rituals are predefined sequences of actions characterized by rigidity and repetition. We propose that enacting ritualized actions can enhance subjective feelings of self-discipline, such that rituals can be harnessed to improve behavioral self-control. We test this hypothesis in six experiments. A field experiment showed that engaging in a pre-eating ritual over a 5-day period helped participants reduce calorie intake (Experiment 1). Pairing a ritual with healthy eating behavior increased the likelihood of choosing healthy food in a subsequent decision (Experiment 2), and enacting a ritual prior to a food choice (i.e., without being integrated into the consumption process) promoted the choice of healthy food over unhealthy food (Experiments 3a and 3b). The positive effect of rituals on self-control held even when a set of ritualized gestures were not explicitly labeled as a ritual, and in other domains of behavioral self-control (i.e., prosocial decision-making; Experiments 4 and 5). Furthermore, Experiments 3a, 3b, 4 and 5 provided evidence for the psychological process underlying the effectiveness of rituals: heightened feelings of self-discipline. Finally, Experiment 5 showed that the absence of a self-control conflict eliminated the effect of rituals on behavior, demonstrating that rituals affect behavioral self-control specifically because they alter responses to self-control conflicts. We conclude by briefly describing the results of a number of additional experiments examining rituals in other self-control domains. Our body of evidence suggests that rituals can have beneficial consequences for self-control.
Perfectionism Is Increasing Over Time: A Meta-Analysis of Birth Cohort Differences From 1989 to 2016
Thomas Curran & Andrew Hill
Psychological Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
From the 1980s onward, neoliberal governance in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom has emphasized competitive individualism and people have seemingly responded, in kind, by agitating to perfect themselves and their lifestyles. In this study, the authors examine whether cultural changes have coincided with an increase in multidimensional perfectionism in college students over the last 27 years. Their analyses are based on 164 samples and 41,641 American, Canadian, and British college students, who completed the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (Hewitt & Flett, 1991) between 1989 and 2016 (70.92% female, Mage 20.66). Cross-temporal meta-analysis revealed that levels of self-oriented perfectionism, socially prescribed perfectionism, and other-oriented perfectionism have linearly increased. These trends remained when controlling for gender and between-country differences in perfectionism scores. Overall, in order of magnitude of the observed increase, the findings indicate that recent generations of young people perceive that others are more demanding of them, are more demanding of others, and are more demanding of themselves.
The effects of money exposure on testosterone and risk-taking, and the moderating role of narcissism
Eric Stenstrom et al.
Personality and Individual Differences, March 2018, Pages 110-114
Abstract:
Although prior research has demonstrated that reminders of money influence motivations and behaviors, there has been scant attention to whether money cues can alter physiological responses. An experiment testing male participants assessed whether being randomly assigned to handle money versus paper would change men's testosterone levels and affect financial risk-taking. Results showed that the effects of handling money on testosterone levels and risk-taking depended on trait narcissism. Among men low in narcissism, handling money led to a greater increase in testosterone levels from Time 1 (baseline) to Time 2 (post-manipulation) compared with their counterparts in a neutral, non-money condition. Conversely, highly narcissistic men who were randomly assigned to handle money exhibited a weaker increase in testosterone levels relative to men in the neutral condition. The results of moderated mediation analyses suggested that money exposure affected financial risk-taking through changes in testosterone levels. Men low in narcissism became more inclined to take risks through an increase in testosterone levels, whereas men high in narcissism became more risk averse via a decrease in testosterone levels.
Fate as a motivated (and de-motivating) belief: Evidence for a link from task importance to belief in fate to effort
Simone Tang, Meredith King & Aaron Kay
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, January 2018, Pages 74-84
Abstract:
The perception of whether one has personal control over a specific task or goal has been shown to be a crucial predictor of effort and persistence. Given this, one might expect people to perceive high personal control over tasks that are very important. However, drawing on emerging theories of motivated ideological belief, we suggest that, in some circumstances, the more a task or goal is perceived as important, the more likely people may be to believe that the outcome is "fated" - that the outcome of an event is predetermined and meant to be. Across four studies, employing diverse samples and contexts, we provide evidence for this basic phenomenon and the negative repercussions it can hold for effort expenditure. Implications and avenues for future research are discussed.
The Influence of Time-Interval Descriptions on Goal-Pursuit Decisions
Nira Munichor & Robyn LeBoeuf
Journal of Marketing Research, forthcoming
Abstract:
Consumers pursue numerous goals that are linked to particular time frames. Might one's likelihood of agreeing to pursue a goal fluctuate even if nothing about the goal's objective features changes, but if instead the only change is in how the time allotted for goal pursuit is described? Seven experiments show that consumers are more likely to agree to pursue goals when the completion interval is described by durations (e.g., "within exactly two weeks from now") instead of dates (e.g., "between today and November 17"). This pattern may arise because dates, which may make it easier to retrieve competing obligations falling within the interval, lead people to focus more on the (unenjoyable) goal-pursuit process, whereas durations, which present the interval in isolation, allow people to focus more on the goal's (beneficial) outcome. These findings suggest that although how a time interval is described seems inconsequential, it has striking effects on goal-pursuit decisions, and therefore has important implications for the marketing of products and actions designed to assist consumers in achieving their goals.
Psychological Entitlement Predicts Failure to Follow Instructions
Emily Zitek & Alexander Jordan
Social Psychological and Personality Science, forthcoming
Abstract:
Six studies examined the relationship between psychological entitlement and not following instructions. In Study 1, more entitled individuals were more likely to ignore instructions about how to format their responses. Studies 2-4 investigated possible boundaries on the association between entitlement and ignoring instructions; however, entitled people were more likely to ignore instructions even when following instructions was low cost for the self, instructions were given in a less controlling way, or punishment was highly likely to result from a failure to follow instructions. To explore another possible explanation for the relationship between entitlement and ignoring instructions, Study 5 examined whether entitled people were more sensitive to situations potentially unfair to them; indeed, they were more likely to reject offers in an ultimatum game. Building on this finding, in Study 6, more entitled individuals' greater likelihood of ignoring instructions was predicted by their viewing instructions as an unfair demand on them.
On the prospect of knowing: Providing solutions can reduce persistence
Evan Risko et al.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, December 2017, Pages 1677-1693
Abstract:
Our willingness to persist in problem solving is often held up as a critical component in being successful. Allied against this ability, however, are a number of situational factors that undermine our persistence. In the present investigation, the authors examine 1 such factor - knowing that the answers to a problem are easily accessible. Does having answers to a problem available reduce our willingness to persist in solving it ourselves? Across 4 experiments, participants (university students from a large Canadian University) solved multisolution anagrams and were either provided the answers after giving up (and knew they would receive the answers) or not. Results demonstrated that individuals persisted for less time in the former condition. In addition, participants did not seem to be aware of the effect that answers had on their decisions to quit. Implications for our understanding of the role that access to answers has on persistence across a number of domains (e.g., education, Internet) are discussed.
Children's rationality, risk attitudes and field behavior
Marco Castillo, Jeffrey Jordan & Ragan Petrie
European Economic Review, February 2018, Pages 62-81
Abstract:
We investigate the relationship between risk attitudes, choice consistency and field behavior of children by conducting economic experiments with 1,275 8th graders. Choices are not completely consistent with any of the economic theories we consider, however, they are not random either. We use our experimental data to structurally estimate risk preferences and correct for decision error. Using a measure constructed from the estimates and individual choices, we find that risk preferences do predict future field behavior. Children who are more risk averse are less likely to receive disciplinary referrals one and two years after the experiment and are more likely to complete high school, even controlling for economic rationality, family background, scholarly achievement and past misbehavior. Accounting for decision error turns out to be important as a simple aggregate measure of risk is not found to be correlated with field behavior.